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>What a massive volcanic eruption looks like from space. The GOES-17 satellite captured images of an umbrella cloud generated by the underwater eruption of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano on Jan. 15, 2022. The Tonga eruption sent crescent-shaped bow shock waves through the atmosphere, as well as numerous lightning strikes. Credits: NASA Earth Observatory image by Joshua Stevens using GOES imagery courtesy of NOAA and NESDIS

Volcanic eruptions do more than send lava and clouds of noxious gas across the landscape, and trigger tsunamis and sonic booms. Sometimes they reach for space! In the case of the January 2022 underwater eruption of Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai, it sent a pressure wave through all altitudes of Earth’s atmosphere. Seismic stations and weather stations around the world (including the one on my front deck) recorded that wave as it boomeranged around the planet! And, there was another surprising result. The Tonga eruption breached Earth’s atmosphere and caused space-weather-like disruptions at the edge of space.

Understanding Space Weather

We’re all familiar with the effects of geomagnetic storms high above Earth’s surface. They are triggered by “space weather” conditions, sometimes called “space climate”. Space weather is a product of the solar wind and interactions with magnetic fields throughout the solar system. On Earth, geomagnetic storms are created by the arrival of masses of charged particles from the Sun. When those clouds of energetic particles hit our magnetic field, they disrupt electrical currents in our atmosphere. During most solar outbursts we get lovely displays of northern and southern lights. However, if the storms are strong enough, they can affect satellite communications and shut down power grids on the ground.

Atmospheric physicists spend a lot of time working with solar scientists to predict the solar outbursts that trigger space weather conditions. They also have a good handle on how geomagnetic storms affect the ionosphere. However, they’re still working on an understanding of the connection between the lower atmosphere and geomagnetic activity in near-Earth space.

Space Weather Effects from the Tonga Eruption

Given all that, imagine how surprised atmospheric scientists were when they witnessed a disturbance in the upper atmosphere that looked like space weather. It wasn’t due to a solar outburst (although the Sun was active). Instead, the disturbance was one more effect of the volcano doing what volcanoes have done for billions of years.

Here’s what happened. The Tonga eruption sent a huge plume of gases, water vapor, and dust into the sky, and created massive pressure disturbances in the atmosphere. (You can see a pretty spectacular animation of the atmospheric effect here, provided by the New York Times. ) The explosion also created huge windstorms that expanded upward toward space. NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON) recorded these extreme disturbances. It was launched in 2019 to study how Earth’s weather interacts with space weather. The European Space Agency’s Swarm satellites also detected changes in ionospheric currents during the event. SWARM is part of an Earth explorer program that studies Earth’s magnetic field.

Spotting the Winds from an Eruption

A graphic schematic of the eruption of Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai on January 15, 2022. This shows the effects of the Tonga eruption throughout the atmosphere and near-Earth space at the top of the ionosphere. Credits: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Mary Pat Hrybyk-Keith
A graphic schematic of the eruption of Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai on January 15, 2022. This shows the effects of the Tonga eruption throughout the atmosphere and near-Earth space at the top of the ionosphere. Credits: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Mary Pat Hrybyk-Keith

In the hours after the eruption, ICON tracked the upward-traveling winds. They sped up as they moved along. By the time they reached the upper atmosphere, they clocked in at 724 km/hour (450 miles per hour). These extreme hurricane-speed winds disrupted an electric current high in the ionosphere. It’s called the equatorial electrojet. This current flows from east to west over the magnetic equator on the day side of the planet.
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Does Betelgeuse Even Rotate? Maybe Not

Betelgeuse pulsating UV HST jpeg

Betelgeuse is the well known red giant star in the corner of Orion the hunter. The name translated in some languages means ‘armpit of the giant’ which I think of all the star names, is simply the best! Betelgeuse has been fascinating observers of late not only because it unexpectedly faded a few years ago but more recently a study shows it’s super fast rotational speed which is, when compared to other supergiants, is like nothing seen before. 

One of the brightest stars in the northern hemisphere sky, in fact the tenth brightest, Betelgeuse has a stunning red colour. It is a semi regular variable star which means there is some regularity to its varied light output but there are occasions, perhaps lasting between 20 and 2000 days where the variation is interrupted. If Betelgeuse were placed in the Sun’s position then its visible surface would more than likely extend beyond the orbit of Mars and swallow up everything in between. 

Image showing the variability of Betelgeuse
1998/9 UV HST images of Betelgeuse showing asymmetrical pulsations with corresponding spectral line profiles (Credit :  STScI, NASA, ESA)

Like all stars, Betelgeuse rotates but a recent study using the Atacama Large Milimeter Array (ALMA) has showed that Betelgeuse is rotating faster than expected. Cool stars like Betelgeuse expand as they evolve and to conserve momentum the rotation must slow.  It is possible that mass loss due to stellar winds decreases rotation speeds further. The current theory predicts that red giants rotate at around 1km per second while red supergiants a little less than 0.1km per second. 

Image showing two of the receivers of the ALMA array in the Atacama Desert.
Two of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) 12-metre antennas (Credit : Iztok Bon?ina/ESO)

Current theory aside it seems there have been a number of observations of at least a few hundred giant stars rotating faster. Betelgeuse in particular has shown faster than expected rotation. Somewhat usefully, it’s proximity to Earth has meant its surface can be resolved and accurate measurements taken. Measurements showed that half of the visible hemisphere was blue shifted and the the other half red shifted. We can use this information to accurately calculate a rotational velocity.

When it comes to Betelgeuse, the radial velocity with ALMA was measured to be around 5.47 km per second. This value was compared against previous observations using Hubble Space Telescope and thankfully this agreed. One leading theory takes binary star evolution as a possible cause and in particular a merger with a low mass companion star. This is not an unusual process with an expected one-third of red supergiants experience stellar merger before their core collapses marking the end of their life. When it comes to red giants the team considered the impact of merging with planetary systems on the rotational velocity.

There are complications however in attaining sufficient data but the team modelled 3D radiation hydrodynamic simulations of red supergiants with properties similar to Betelgeuse. Throwing a proverbial spanner in the works, the team suggest that it is possible that the observations could be wrong and false signals have been picked up from churning convective plasma at the surface rather than the rotation of the star itself!

In an attempt to ascertain if it is possible to accurately measure the rotational speed of red giants and supergiants they had to develop new processing techniques to establish predictions that they could compare with observations of Betelgeuse. The team finally conclude that to be able to establish without doubt that Betelgeuse and other red supergiants are rotating
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5 Reasons You Must Backpack the Teton Crest Trail

Wind4 016 jpg

By Michael Lanza

On my first backpacking trip on the Teton Crest Trail in Grand Teton National Park, camped on Death Canyon Shelf, a broad, boulder-strewn and wildflower-carpeted bench at 9,500 feet, I awoke to the sound of heavy clomping outside my tent. I unzipped the tent door to investigate—and saw a huge bull elk standing just outside my nylon walls.

As I’ve come to learn over more than 20 trips to the Tetons since that first one over three decades ago, that elk encounter symbolized just one of several compelling reasons why every backpacker should move the Teton Crest Trail to the top of their to-do list: the wildlife. Where it occurred illustrates another reason: After years of backpacking all over the United States—including the 10 years I spent as a field editor for Backpacker magazine and even longer running this blog—Death Canyon Shelf is still one of my all-time favorite backcountry campsites.

Wind4 016 1 jpg
Hi, I’m Michael Lanza, creator of The Big Outside, which has made several top outdoors blog lists. Click here to sign up for my FREE email newsletter. Join The Big Outside to get full access to all of my blog’s stories. Click here to learn how I can help you plan your next trip.

Watching the sunset from a campsite in the North Fork Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park.
” data-image-caption=”Watching the sunset from a campsite in the North Fork Cascade Canyon on the Teton Crest Trail in Grand Teton National Park.
” data-medium-file=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?fit=200%2C300&ssl=1″ data-large-file=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?fit=683%2C1024&ssl=1″ src=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?resize=432%2C648&ssl=1″ alt=”Watching the sunset from a campsite in the North Fork Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park.” class=”wp-image-36411″ style=”width:432px;height:648px” width=”432″ height=”648″ srcset=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?w=800&ssl=1 800w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?resize=200%2C300&ssl=1 200w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?resize=768%2C1152&ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-090-A-campsite-on-the-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P.jpg?resize=683%2C1024&ssl=1 683w” sizes=”(max-width: 432px) 100vw, 432px” data-recalc-dims=”1″ />Watching the sunset from a campsite in the North Fork Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park.

And I certainly consider the Teton Crest Trail one of the 10 best backpacking trips in America. It’s the one I keep going back to again and again. (Read about my most recent trip.)

I think the five reasons I lay out below will give you insights into questions you might have about this classic hike—and inspire you to go do it.

But know this important planning detail: The

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How to Get a Permit to Backpack the Teton Crest Trail

Tet19 047 Me on Teton Crest Trail copy cropped jpg

By
Michael Lanza

For
backpackers, the Teton Crest Trail really delivers it all: beautiful lakes,
creeks, and waterfalls, high passes with sweeping vistas, endless meadows of
vibrant wildflowers, a good chance of seeing wildlife like elk and moose, some
of the best campsites you will ever pitch a tent in, and mind-boggling scenery
just about every step of the way. And it’s a relatively beginner-friendly trip
of 40 miles or less, which most people can hike in four to five days.

No wonder it’s so enormously popular—and there’s so much competition for backcountry permits.

In this story, I will offer tips on how to maximize your chances of getting a permit to backpack the Teton Crest Trail, sharing expertise I’ve acquired from more than 20 trips in the Tetons and several on the Teton Crest Trail over more than three decades, including the 10 years I spent as Northwest Editor of Backpacker magazine and even longer running this blog.

Tet19 047 Me on Teton Crest Trail copy cropped 1 jpg
Hi, I’m Michael Lanza, creator of The Big Outside. Click here to sign up for my FREE email newsletter. Join The Big Outside to get full access to all of my blog’s stories. Click here for my e-guides to classic backpacking trips. Click here to learn how I can help you plan your next trip.

Lake Solitude, North Fork Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park.
” data-image-caption=”Lake Solitude in the North Fork of Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park. Click photo for my e-guide “The Complete Guide to Backpacking the Teton Crest Trail.”
” data-medium-file=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?fit=300%2C200&ssl=1″ data-large-file=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?fit=900%2C600&ssl=1″ src=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1″ alt=”Lake Solitude, North Fork Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park.” class=”wp-image-36414″ srcset=”https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?resize=1024%2C683&ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?resize=300%2C200&ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?resize=768%2C512&ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?resize=1080%2C720&ssl=1 1080w, https://i0.wp.com/thebigoutside.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Tet19-095-Lake-Solitude-Teton-Crest-Trail-North-Fork-Cascade-Canyon-Grand-Teton-N.P..jpg?w=1200&ssl=1 1200w” sizes=”(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px” data-recalc-dims=”1″ />Lake Solitude in the North Fork of Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park. Click photo for my e-guide “The Complete Guide to Backpacking the Teton Crest Trail.”

See my story from my most-recent trip on it, “A Wonderful Obsession: Backpacking the Teton Crest Trail,” which requires a paid subscription to The Big Outside to read in full, including basic information on planning a TCT backpacking trip. For much more information and expert tips on planning this trip, get my top-selling e-guide “The Complete Guide to Backpacking the Teton Crest Trail in Grand Teton National Park.”

I’ve also helped many readers plan a backpacking trip in the Tetons and elsewhere, answering all of their questions and customizing an itinerary ideal for them. See my Custom Trip Planning page to learn how
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